World Health Statistics Quarterly, Volume 49, Issue 2 (1996). pp. 158-164.
Language:
English
Abstract:
The need to migrate is usually a function of the complex interaction of economic, social, familial and political factors. Among the most important, however, are the denial of access to education, employment, goods and services and the lack of respect for basic human rights. Because in many societies women are marginalized from these rights, migration to more economically and educationally open societies can often help improve their personal situation and their professional opportunities. On the other hand, because the status of women is usually linked to their role and status within the family and is defined in relationship to their male partners, migration can place women in situations where they experience stress and anxiety due to the loss of their traditional social entourage and environment. Their social integration in new settings may be equally limited by their initial lack of education and occupational experience. The higher vulnerability of women to sexual abuse and violence also places them at risk of STDs, including HIV, and a range of post-traumatic stress disorders associated with sexual violence. Their reproductive health needs often go unnoticed and unprotected even in well organized refugee and migrant situations, and the insensitivity of health staff to the needs of women is often more pronounced in refugee and migrant contexts than it is in general. Health monitoring of women in all migration-related situations has to be given greater priority. Similarly, much more attention at a health policy level is called for if the rights of women refugees and migrants are to be protected, and their contribution to health and social development is to be acknowledged and promoted. Migration has a complex effect on health, and women migrants face health problems that are exacerbated by their inferior social status as well as by their unique biological characteristics. The magnitude of migration appears to be increasing, and labor migration has become age- and sex-selective. Family cohesion is threatened by migration policies and contemporary migration patterns. Women migrants face barriers to economic mobility when they migrate, especially when they lose the status attached to their family positions. Migrant women also face sexual abuse by employers in receiving countries and from personnel and inhabitants in refugee camps. Migration also fuels the sex tourism industry in countries as diverse as the Netherlands and Thailand. Adverse health conditions may result from voluntary and forced migration because of administrative obstacles to care, a lack of awareness about available services, linguistic barriers, failure to make health issues a priority, and the inferior social status of women. Pregnancy outcomes and perinatal health indicators suffer as well, and crude death rates of refugees are higher than baseline rates in their countries of origin. Rape and prostitution among migrant women become key factors in transmission of HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. Breast-feeding practices may be compromised by the indiscriminate distribution of milk powder and supplementary foods in refugee camps or by adoption of the more "modern" habits of urban areas. Families are disrupted when women are impeded from supplying their usual care, and household conflicts occur when women define new roles for themselves in receiving countries. Among women, the stress of migration and resulting cultural shock has also led to occurrences of unexplained nocturnal death (Hmong), psychosomatic blindness (Cambodians), and feelings of alienation.